Blood Cadmium and Preterm Birth: A Systems Toxicology Review of Molecular Mechanisms, Placental Disruption, and Translational Obstetric Implications

I Nyoman Hariyasa Sanjaya, Wiku Andonotopo, Muhammad Adrianes Bachnas, Julian Dewantiningrum, Mochammad Besari Adi Pramono, Ryan Saktika Mulyana, Evert Solomon Pangkahila, Muhammad Ilham Aldika Akbar, Cut Meurah Yeni, Dudy Aldiansyah, Nuswil Bernolian, Anak Agung Gede Putra Wiradnyana, Adhi Pribadi, Sri Sulistyowati, Milan Stanojevic, Asim Kurjak


Abstract


Objectives: Preterm birth (PTB) remains a leading global cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality, with multifactorial origins including inflammation, endocrine disruption, and placental dysfunction. Recent evidence identifies cadmium (Cd), a persistent environmental toxicant, as a modifiable contributor to PTB. This review aims to integrate the mechanistic, molecular, and clinical literature on maternal blood cadmium exposure and its role in the pathogenesis of PTB.
Methods: A systematic and integrative review was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Literature from 2000 to 2025 was retrieved using PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science. Eligible studies included molecular toxicology, animal models, human epidemiological data, and placental mechanistic research addressing cadmium exposure and preterm birth. Inclusion criteria emphasized mechanistic clarity, gestational outcome relevance, and measurable cadmium biomarkers. Figures, tables, and mechanistic diagrams were used to illustrate toxicological convergence pathways.
Results: Cadmium disrupts placental homeostasis via oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, impaired trophoblast invasion, progesterone suppression, and activation of inflammatory cascades such as the NLRP3 inflammasome. Consistent associations between maternal cadmium burden and PTB risk were found across animal, cellular, and human population studies. However, heterogeneity in exposure assessment, absence of unified risk thresholds, and confounding from co-exposures challenge causal inference. Literature remains fragmented, lacking integration between mechanistic insights and clinical risk models.
Conclusions: Cadmium should be reclassified as a central agent in the pathophysiology of PTB. We propose a precision obstetrics framework that includes environmental cadmium screening in high-risk pregnancies, implementation of exposome-informed policies, and prospective multicenter studies with molecular endpoints. Obstetric care must evolve to include toxicological risk profiling as standard practice in the prevention of PTB.

Kadmium dalam Darah dan Kelahiran Prematur: Tinjauan Toksikologi Sistemik terhadap Mekanisme Molekuler, Disrupsi Plasenta, dan Implikasi Obstetri Translasi

Abstrak
Tujuan: Kelahiran Prematur (preterm birth/PTB) tetap menjadi penyebab utama morbiditas dan mortalitas neonatal di seluruh dunia dengan etiologi multifaktorial yang mencakup inflamasi, gangguan endokrin, dan disfungsi plasenta. Bukti terbaru mengidentifikasi kadmium (Cd), suatu toksikan lingkungan persisten, sebagai faktor kontribusi yang dapat dimodifikasi terhadap PTB. Tinjauan ini bertujuan untuk mengintegrasikan literatur mekanistik, molekuler, dan klinis mengenai paparan kadmium dalam darah maternal dan perannya dalam patogenesis PTB.
Metode: Tinjauan sistematis dan integratif dilakukan sesuai pedoman PRISMA 2020. Literatur dari tahun 2000 hingga 2025 dikumpulkan melalui database PubMed, Scopus, Embase, dan Web of Science. Studi yang memenuhi syarat mencakup toksikologi molekuler, model hewan, data epidemiologi manusia, dan penelitian mekanistik plasenta yang mengevaluasi hubungan antara paparan kadmium dan kelahiran prematur. Kriteria inklusi menekankan kejelasan mekanistik, relevansi terhadap hasil kehamilan, serta penggunaan biomarker kadmium yang terukur. Gambar, tabel, dan diagram mekanistik digunakan untuk mengilustrasikan jalur konvergensi toksikologis.
Hasil: Kadmium mengganggu homeostasis plasenta melalui stres oksidatif, disfungsi endotel, gangguan invasi trofoblas, supresi progesteron, dan aktivasi jalur inflamasi seperti inflammasom NLRP3. Hubungan konsisten antara beban kadmium maternal dan risiko PTB ditemukan dalam studi hewan, seluler, dan populasi manusia. Namun, adanya heterogenitas dalam penilaian paparan, belum adanya ambang risiko yang seragam, serta pengaruh faktor pajanan lainnya menjadi tantangan dalam penarikan kesimpulan kausal. Literatur masih terfragmentasi dan belum mengintegrasikan temuan mekanistik dengan model risiko klinis secara menyeluruh.
Kesimpulan: Kadmium seharusnya diklasifikasikan ulang sebagai agen sentral dalam patofisiologi PTB. Kami mengusulkan suatu kerangka kerja obstetri presisi yang mencakup skrining lingkungan terhadap kadmium pada kehamilan berisiko tinggi, menerapkan kebijakan berbasis exposome, serta studi prospektif multisentra dengan titik akhir molekuler. Pelayanan kebidanan harus berkembang dengan mengadopsi profil risiko toksikologis sebagai bagian dari praktik standar dalam pencegahan kelahiran prematur.

Kata kunci: Disrupsi Plasenta; Interaksi Endokrin-Inflamasi; Kesehatan Reproduksi Lingkungan; Mekanisme Kelahiran Prematur; Toksisitas Kadmium,


Keywords


Cadmium Toxicity, Preterm Birth Mechanisms, Placental Disruption, Environmental Reproductive Health, Endocrine-Inflammatory Crosstalk

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24198/obgynia.v8i2.949

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